Methods for producing alloy deposits and controlling the nanostructure thereof using negative current pulsing electro-deposition, and articles incorporating such deposits

ABSTRACT

Bipolar wave current, with both positive and negative current portions, is used to electrodeposit a nanocrystalline grain size deposit. Polarity Ratio is the ratio of the absolute value of the time integrated amplitude of negative polarity current and positive polarity current. Grain size can be precisely controlled in alloys of two or more chemical components, at least one of which is a metal, and at least one of which is most electro-active. Typically, although not always, the amount of the more electro-active material is preferentially lessened in the deposit during times of negative current. The deposit also exhibits superior macroscopic quality, being relatively crack and void free. Parameters of current density, duration of pulse portions, and composition of the bath are determined with reference to constitutive relations showing grain size as a function of deposit composition, and deposit composition as a function of Polarity Ratio, or, perhaps, a single relation showing grain size as a function of Polarity ratio. A specified grain size can be achieved by selecting a corresponding Polarity Ratio, based on these relations. Coatings can be in layers, each having an average grain size, which can vary layer to layer and also in a region in a graded fashion. Coatings can be chosen for environmental protection (corrosion, abrasion), decorative properties, and for the same uses as a hard chrome coating. A finished article may be built upon a substrate of electro-conductive plastic, or metal, including steels, aluminum, brass. The substrate may remain, or be removed.

RELATED DOCUMENTS

Priority is hereby claimed to and this is a continuation of pending U.S.application Ser. No. 14/271,534, filed on May 7, 2014, projected toissue on Jan. 15, 2019, as U.S. Pat. No. 10,179,954, entitled ARTICLESINCORPORATING NICKEL TUNGSTEN ALLOY DEPOSITS HAVING CONTROLLED, VARYINGNANOSTRUCTURE, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.12/317,080, entitled ARTICLES INCORPORATING ALLOY DEPOSITS HAVINGCONTROLLED, VARYING, NANOSTRUCTURE, filed Dec. 19, 2008, issued as U.S.Pat. No. 8,728,630 on May 20, 2014, which was a continuation of U.S.patent application Ser. No. 12/231,918, filed on Sep. 8, 2008, entitledMETHOD FOR PRODUCING ALLOY DEPOSITS AND CONTROLLING THE NANOSTRUCTURETHEREOF USING ELECTRO-DEPOSITION WITH CONTROLLED POLARITY RATIO, issuedas U.S. Pat. No. 8,906,216, on Dec. 9, 2014, which was a division ofU.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/147,146 filed on Jun. 7, 2005,entitled METHOD FOR PRODUCING ALLOY DEPOSITS AND CONTROLLING THENANOSTRUCTURE THEREOF USING NEGATIVE CURRENT PULSING ELECTRO-DEPOSITION,issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,425,255 on Sep. 16, 2008, each of whichapplications and patents is hereby incorporated herein fully byreference, and priority is hereby claimed to each application and patentmentioned above.

GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

This invention was made with Government support under Grant No.DAAD19-03-1-0235 awarded by the Army Research Office. The United StatesGovernment has certain rights in this invention.

A partial summary is provided below, preceding the claims.

The inventions disclosed herein will be understood with regard to thefollowing description, appended claims and accompanying drawings, where:

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a graphical representation showing grain size on the verticalaxis as a function of liquid temperature on the horizontal axis;

FIG. 2A is a schematic rendition of a direct current waveform of priorart methods of electroplating;

FIG. 2B is a schematic rendition of a unipolar pulsing (UPP) currentwaveform of prior art methods of electroplating;

FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of an apparatus invention hereof,suitable for practicing a method of an invention hereof;

FIG. 4 is a schematic rendition of a scanning electron microscopy imageof a cross section of a metal film deposited using liquid temperaturecontrol;

FIG. 5 is a schematic rendition of a bipolar pulsing (BPP) currentwaveform for use with a method of an invention hereof;

FIG. 6 is a graphical representation showing a generic relation ofproportion of an element, shown on the vertical axis, as a function ofPolarity Ratio, shown on a horizontal axis, having a negative varyingslope, as it does for all relevant systems;

FIG. 7 is a graphical representation showing grain size of a deposit onthe vertical scale, as a function of the proportion of an element,having a generally negative, varying slope;

FIG. 8 is a graphical representation showing a generic relation of grainsize on the vertical axis as a function of proportion of anelectro-active element shown on the horizontal axis, having a generallypositive, varying slope at all locations;

FIG. 9 is a graphical rendition of X-ray diffraction patterns forincreasing values of Polarity Ratio for elecro-deposits of the Ni—Wsystem;

FIG. 10 is a graphical representation showing grain size on the verticalaxis as a function of Polarity Ratio on the horizontal axis for a Ni—Wsystem;

FIG. 11 is a graphical representation of a generic relation showinggrain size on a vertical axis as a function of Polarity Ratio on ahorizontal axis, having a generally positive slope of varying degree;

FIG. 12 is a schematic rendition of a scanning electron microscopy imageof a cross section of a metal film deposited by BPP control of a methodinvention hereof;

FIG. 13 is a schematic rendition of a cross-section of a deposit madeaccording to a method of an invention hereof, having adjacent layerswith different average grain size, and a larger layer having a gradedaverage grain size through its thickness.

FIG. 14 is a graphical representation relating proportion of theelectro-active element W on the vertical axis as a function of PolarityRatio on the horizontal axis, for a Ni—W system;

FIG. 15 is a graphical representation showing experimental data relatinggrain size as a function of proportion of W for a Ni—W system;

FIG. 16 is a graphical representation showing a generic relation ofgrain size on the vertical axis as a function of Polarity Ratio, on thehorizontal axis, having a slope generally opposite to that shown in FIG.10, such as would arise from a system having a grain size as a functionof proportion relation, such as shown in FIG. 8, and a proportion as afunction of Polarity Ratio relation, such as shown in FIG. 6.

INTRODUCTION

Nanocrystalline metals are characterized by a grain size on the order ofnanometers up to one micron in size. Much research effort has focused onthe study of these materials due to their exceptional combination ofproperties. Yield strength, which is of interest for mechanical design,is inversely linked to grain size, such that as the grain sizedecreases, the yield strength increases. One motivation for the study ofnanocrystalline metals has been to exploit this trend as grain size isreduced to near atomic length scales. Indeed, nanocrystalline metalsoffer yield strengths much higher than their larger than micro-meterscale crystalline (microcrystalline) counterparts, and along with thisincrease in strength, nanocrystalline metals can offer other benefits,such as enhanced ductility, exceptional corrosion and wear resistance,and desireable magnetic properties.

The magnetic properties of nanocrystalline metals can show a highercombination of permeability and saturation magnetic flux density thanpossible in traditional microcrystalline metals. These properties areimportant for soft magnetic applications and are enhanced as grain sizeis decreased to the nano-scale.

As used in this specification and in the claims attached hereto,nanocrystalline shall mean crystal structures having an average grainsize of up to 1000 nm. Also, unless otherwise indicated, when grain sizeis mentioned in this specification and in the claims, average grain sizeis meant.

Processing nanocrystalline metals is regarded as challenging, becausethey necessarily exhibit far-from-equilibrium microstructures. Variousmethods have been used to refine grain size to the nanometer scale, themost prominent of which are severe plastic deformation, compaction ofnanocrystalline powders, and electrodeposition.

The compaction method inevitably incorporates impurities into thematerial, which is undesirable. The compaction method is also limited toshapes that can be formed from compacted sintered powder, which shapesare limited. Relatively large amounts of energy are needed to practicethe severe plastic deformation methods. Further, they are not easilyscalable to industrial scales, and cannot generally produce the finestgrain sizes in the nanocrystalline range without a significant increasein costs.

Electrodeposition does not suffer from these drawbacks. For coatingapplications, electrodeposition can be used to plate out metal on aconductive material of virtually any shape, to yield exceptional surfaceproperties.

Electrodeposition also generally produces high purity materials. Anelectrodeposition process is scalable and requires relatively lowenergy. These characteristics make it an ideal choice for industrialscale operations, not only from a technical but also from an economicpoint of view.

In addition to these advantages, electrodeposition also offers severalavenues for grain size control. Several variables in the process can beadjusted to yield materials of a specified average grain size. It ismainly for this reason that electrodeposition has been extensively usedto study structure-property relationships in nanocrystalline metals.Typical variables that have been used to control grain size includecurrent density, liquid temperature, and liquid composition, each ofwhich will affect some facet of the resulting deposit.

For instance, as shown with reference to FIG. 1, there is in somesystems a relationship between liquid temperature and crystal grainsize.

In electrodeposition, a potential is applied across an anode and acathode placed in a solution containing metallic ions. Under theinfluence of the electric field, a current is developed in the solutionwhere positive metal ions are attracted to and deposited at the cathodesurface. After depositing at the cathode, metal atoms arrange into athermodynamically stable or metastable state.

Traditional electrodeposition employs a constant steady current betweenan anode and a cathode, referred to as direct current (DC). Another typeof current, known as unipolar pulsed current (UPP) is also being used.This current pulsing employs periodic “off-time,” where no currentflows. These two current types are illustrated schematically in FIGS. 2Aand 2B, respectively. Typically the characteristic pulse times, t_(on),t_(off), are on the order of 0.1-100 ms. This pulsing has been shown tobenefit the current efficiency, surface leveling, and stresscharacteristics of the deposit.

A basic hardware set-up that can be used for practicing a method of aninvention hereof is shown schematically in block diagram form in FIG. 3.A vessel 332 contains a liquid 344, such as an electrolyte bath, inwhich are found the components that will form the nanocrystalline metal,such as metal ions. A nominal cathode electrode 340 and a nominal anodeelectrode 342 are immersed in the liquid 344, and are coupled throughconductors 358 to a power supply 352. (As shown, the electrodes aresimple individual conductors. However, an electrode can be one or moreelectrically conductive bodies, electrically coupled in parallel witheach other.) A magnetic stirrer 354 has a moving part 356 that is withinthe vessel 332. An oil bath 346 surrounds the liquid vessel 332. Aheater 348 is immersed in the oil bath 346, and is controlled by athermal controller 350. The power supply 352, is capable of applyingboth positive and negative polarity pulses. It and the thermalcontroller 350 and magnetic stirrer 354, may all be controlled by asingle computerized controller, which is not shown, or by individualcontrollers that are governed by a human operator. A temperature sensor360 measures the temperature of the liquid 344.

In operation, a potential difference is applied by the power supplybetween the nominal anode 342 and the cathode 340. This differencecauses ions in the liquid to be drawn toward the nominal cathode 340,upon which they are deposited. If the conditions are controlledproperly, the deposit grain size can be controlled to a fine degree.There may be one or more anodes.

The grain size of a multi-component electrodeposit can be controlled bya variety of known means. One of the most prominent methods used in theliterature is the precise control of bath temperature. This effect isillustrated in FIG. 1, which graphically presents the grain size as afunction of bath temperature relationship for the Ni—W system, with allother deposition variables held constant. The data in FIG. 1 wereproduced by the inventors hereof, but reproduce a well-known trend inthis alloy system. As can be seen, over a range of between 45° C. and75° C., the grain size drops from about 11.5 nm to about 2 nm. The slopeof this curve (change in grain size divided by change in temperature) isnegative, with increasing temperature resulting in smaller grain size.

While it is true that grain size can be specified by controlling liquidtemperature, other characteristics of the deposit produced withtemperature control are undesirable. Specifically, the macroscopicquality of the deposits, evidenced through cross-sectional scanningelectron microscopy, show significant shortcomings. FIG. 4 displays thecross-section of a deposit with a specified grain size and compositiondeposited under bath temperature control with direct current.

This deposit is not as homogeneous as can reasonably be desired (whichwill be explained below, in connection with deposits made according toan invention hereof) and includes cracks 402 and voids 404.

In addition to this poor homogeneity, bath temperature control suffersfrom additional undesirable problems. Changing bath temperature during adeposit is time consuming and highly energy consuming in large systems.Thus, it is not possible to change grain size and composition withoutsignificant difficulty, either during a single deposition run or fromone run to the next run. Thus, it is difficult to achieve amicrostructure that is graded or layered with respect to grain sizewithin a single deposit.

It is typically easier to maintain a constant liquid temperature, thanto change liquid temperature. Thus, a control method that requireschanging the liquid temperature has undesirable complexity and costsassociated therewith. Rather than, or in addition to liquid temperaturecontrol, deposit composition and grain size can conventionally bechanged by changing the liquid composition. However, doing so alsoprohibits producing sequential, differently composed deposits withoutchemical alterations to the liquid, again, an added complexity. Changingthe liquid composition, and/or its temperature necessarily results insystem idle times. These idle times add cost to the process. Resultsusing composition control are about the same as those using temperaturecontrol.

Thus, a difficulty with electrodepositing nanocrystalline deposits usingeither DC plating or UPP, is that it is not possible to obtain depositshaving grain size within limits as precisely as may be desired. Changingthe temperature or the composition of the bath is cumbersome. Moreover,it is not possible to produce a deposit having a nano-structure thatvaries through its thickness, especially if cracks and voids are to beavoided. Similarly, it is not possible to obtain deposits havingcomposition as precisely as may be desired. Typically, control of thecomposition is largely dependent upon the composition of the liquid andits temperature, with no, or very little opportunity to adjustcomposition of the deposit once the composition of the liquid isestablished, other than by changing its temperature.

In addition to bath temperature and bath composition control, currentdensity can also sometimes be used to control composition and grain sizeof alloy deposits. While this method can be used to control grain size(and also composition) it is inherently limited by the range of currentdensities that can be used while still achieving a homogeneous, crackand void free deposit of sufficient thickness. A high current densitywill result in highly stressed, cracked and voided deposits while a lowcurrent density will result in a slow deposition rate. Thus the range ofgrain sizes that can be achieved by this method are limited to a degreethat makes it operationally unpractical.

Objects

Therefore, there is a need for a method of producing metal objectshaving nanocrystalline grain size structure, with the ability to tailoreither the composition of the deposit, or its grain size, or both,without changing either the composition of the liquid or the temperatureof the liquid. Further, there is a need for a method of producing suchmetal objects that produces high quality homogeneous deposits with alesser degree of voids and cracks than is conventionally achieved usingtemperature control. There is also a need for a method that enablesgrading and layering of nanocrystalline crystal size and/or compositionwithin a deposit, and further to do so without also introducing voidsand cracks. A related need is to enable changing the composition and/orgrain size of the deposit relatively quickly in time, so as not tootherwise disrupt the deposition process. Additional need exists for amethod that is economical, scalable to industrial volumes and robust.

DETAILED DISCUSSION

An invention disclosed herein is to use the shape of the applied currentwaveform to control the grain size and composition of a deposit.

By introducing a bipolar wave current, for instance a square wave withboth positive and negative current portions, the nanocrystalline grainsize can be precisely controlled in particular electrodeposited alloysof two or more chemical components. Along with this precise control, thedeposited metal also exhibits superior macroscopic quality, necessaryfor most practical applications of the material.

An invention hereof is to use bipolar pulsed current (BPP). With BPP,shown schematically in FIG. 5, current is pulsed with a positive current5P segment, alternated with a negative current 5N segment, where thepotential is momentarily inverted so that the element 340, which is anominal cathode when current is positive, becomes an anode and viceversa. The opposite occurs with the electrode 342, which is a nominalanode during positive current, and a cathode during negative current.There need be no extended “off-time,” (current of zero) although, theremay be a momentary “off-time”, and, more importantly, there is adefinite period of negative current. Typically, the characteristic pulsetimes t_(pos), t_(neg) are on the order of 0.1-100 millisecond. Therecould also be a definite and measurable off-time of zero current, forinstance using a pulse that has a positive period, a zero period and anegative period, and the positive or zero again.

The presence of a negative current during t_(neg) has several importanteffects. For electrodeposition of pure metals, employing a negativecurrent effectively levels the deposit over its surface area, due to alocally intense current density at high points in the deposit'scross-sectional profile. In the case of binary or higher alloys,however, the situation is more complicated. During the negative portionof the pulse, typically the atoms with the highest oxidation potential(lowest reduction potential) of the alloy, will be selectively etched(dissolved) from the deposit. This selective etching occurs regardingthe most electro-active element, whether it is metal or not. Thisselective dissolution allows for precise control (within useful limits)of composition of the deposit with respect to the electro-activeelement. Other things being kept equal, as the absolute value of theamplitude of the negative pulse current increases, there is a resultingdecrease in the proportion in the deposit of the more electro-activeelement.

The inventors have determined that a ratio Q of two components of theexciting waveform can be used to control composition of the deposit, andthus its grain size. These components are the absolute value of the timeintegrated amplitude of negative polarity current (I⁻), and the absolutevalue of time integrated amplitude of positive polarity current (I⁺),where:

$\begin{matrix}{N = {{\int{{I^{-}(t)}{dt}}}}} & {{Eq}.\mspace{14mu} 1} \\{{P = {{\int{{I^{+}(t)}{dt}}}}}{and}} & {{Eq}.\mspace{14mu} 2} \\{{Q = \frac{N}{P}},} & {{Eq}.\mspace{14mu} 3}\end{matrix}$

where t is time, and the integrals in Eq. 1 and Eq. 2, run over allperiods of negative and positive current, respectively. As used hereinin the specification and the claims, the quantity Q is called thePolarity Ratio. The Polarity Ratio is always positive, because it isdefined in terms of the absolute values of the amplitudes of the pulsecomponents. In general, the Polarity Ratio will be greater than zero,and less than 1, for reasons discussed below.

In the most general case, control of the grain size of a deposition of ametallic object requires a few things. An electrodeposition system mustco-deposit two or more elements simultaneously, at least one of which isa metallic element. The metallic element may, but need not be the mostelectro-active element. The grain size of single metal systems cannot becontrolled using a method of the present invention.

The value of the Polarity Ratio can be varied by varying the amplitudeand/or duration of both the positive and the negative pulses, relativeto each other.

FIG. 6 is a graph showing schematically a generic relationship betweenthe composition of a deposit, as characterized by the atomic % (at %) ofthe electro-active element (on the vertical scale) as a function ofPolarity Ratio (on the horizontal scale).

In this specification and in the claims hereof, the contribution of theelectro-active element to the composition will be referred to as theproportion of the electro-active element. The proportion can be measuredin any appropriate way, including but not limited to: parts, weightpercent, atomic percent, weight fractions, atomic fractions, volumepercent or volume fraction, or any appropriate division.

In some alloy systems, there is a clear relationship betweenelectro-deposit composition, as characterized by proportion ofelectro-active element, and grain size. For instance, as shown in FIG.7, as the proportion of the electro-active element increases, the grainsize decreases. But, in general, a relatively larger proportion of theelectro-active element could result in either a relative smaller grainsize, or relatively larger grain size (as shown schematically in FIG. 8,discussed below).

In general, this disclosure discussion is based on generic, orrepresentative graphical representations of the relationships amongparameters. For instance, FIGS. 6, 7, 8, 11, 16 represent genericrelations. Several figures are based on experimental work by theinventors, typically with the Ni—W system, for instance, FIGS. 9, 10,14, 15.

FIG. 7 shows grain size along the vertical axis as a function ofproportion of the electro-active element, by atomic percent along thehorizontal axis. The dependence of grain size upon proportion relationsare based on the thermodynamics of grain boundary segregation and arebeyond the scope of this disclosure. An important point is that grainsize can be precisely controlled through careful adjustment to thecomposition in general, and in particular, of the proportion of theelectro-active element. A reasonably full explanation is given inWeissmuller, J., Alloy effects in nanostructures, NanostructuredMaterials, 1993, 3, p. 261-72, the disclosure of which is fullyincorporated herein by reference.

Thus, FIG. 7 shows schematically that proportion of electro-activeelement can be used to control deposit grain size, analogously to thefact that bath temperature can be used to control grain size, as isunderstood with reference to FIG. 1.

Because, as discussed above, there is also generally a dependence ofproportion of electro-active element upon Polarity Ratio, it is aninvention hereof to use BPP in electrodeposition of alloys, to preciselycontrol Polarity Ratio and thus, composition, with respect toelectro-active element proportion, and by controlling composition,thereby to robustly control nanocrystalline grain size.

Example

Using BPP to control crystal grain size in the nanometer range has beenreduced to practice, for instance for the particular case of a binaryalloy of nickel-tungsten. This alloy was deposited with the liquid bathcomposition and plating parameters as given in Table 1, using an inertplatinum electrode 342, nominally designated an anode and a copperelectrode 340, nominally designated a cathode, in a 2 liter bath, asshown schematically with reference to FIG. 3. A pulsed current was used,having a negative current portion, the amplitude of which was varied fordifferent specimen runs from 0 to negative 0.3 A/cm² at a constant pulsetime of 3 ms. The positive portion of the pulse always had an amplitudeof +0.2 A/cm², and a duration of 20 ms.

TABLE 1 Deposition conditions for nickel-tungsten Nickel sulfatehexahydrate (NiSO₄•6H₂O) 0.06M Sodium tungstate hexahydrate(Na₂WO₄•2H₂O) 0.14M Sodium citrate dihydrate (Na₃C₆H₅O₇•2H₂O)  0.5MAmmonium chloride (NH₄Cl)  0.5M Positive pulse time (ms) 20 Negativepulse time (ms) 3 Positive current density (A/cm²) 0.2 Negative currentdensity (A/cm²) 0-0.3  Polarity Ratio 0-0.225 Bath temperature (° C.) 75

FIG. 9 displays the x-ray diffraction patterns for specimens fromdifferent runs. Each run was conducted using a different Polarity Ratio,between 0 and 0.225, while keeping other factors constant. Thesediffraction patterns indicate a clear structural change, as a functionof the Polarity Ratio, which in this case was adjusted from run to runby changing the absolute value of the amplitude of the negative pulsecurrent. Furthermore, this data can be analyzed with standard methods todetermine the grain size of the deposits.

The results of such an analysis are shown in FIG. 10 with grain sizeshown on the vertical axis and Polarity Ratio shown on the horizontalaxis. A change in the magnitude of the value of the Polarity Ratioproduces a repeatable and significant change in the grain size. Ingeneral, for the Ni—W system, the slope (ΔG/ΔN) relating change in grainsize (ΔG) to change in Polarity Ratio (ΔN) is positive, such that forrelatively larger Polarity Ratio, the grain size will be relativelylarger. From Eq. 3, recall that Polarity Ratio is the ratio of timeintegrated negative pulse amount divided by time integrated positivepulse amount. Thus, a relatively larger Polarity Ratio results from arelative increase in negative polarity current as compared to positivepolarity current.

For the conditions studied, nanocrystalline structures with grain sizesranging from 2-40 nm have been explicitly made. FIG. 11 shows arepresentative relation showing grain size as a function of PolarityRatio for a generic system, having a generally positive and varyingslope. The general relation shown in FIG. 11 results from combining arelationship of deposit grain size as a function of proportionelectro-active element such as is shown in FIG. 7 with one of proportionelectro-active element as a function of Polarity Ratio, such as is shownin FIG. 6.

Thus, to consider one way that an electrodeposition system might bedesigned, a designer would first specify an average grain size to meetmechanical or other property needs, such as G_(s). Then, using aconstitutive relation that relates grain size as a function ofproportion, such as that shown in FIG. 7, would identify a point I onthe curve of the constitutive relation that has G_(s) as its grain sizecoordinate and from that point, identify a proportion C_(D) ofelectro-active element, the proportion coordinate of point I, to achievethe specified grain size G_(s). The designer would then refer to aconstitutive relation showing proportion of the electro-active elementas a function of Polarity Ratio, such as shown at FIG. 6, finding thePolarity Ratio Q_(D) that would result in the chosen proportion. Thepoint J on the curve shown in FIG. 6 relates the proportion C_(D) to aPolarity Ratio Q_(D). Running the system at this Polarity Ratio Q_(D)would then achieve the determined proportion of electro-active elementin the deposit C_(D), and thus the specified grain size G_(s). Thesubscript D for proportion C and Polarity Ratio Q is chosen becausethese quantities are essentially derived quantities, from a constitutiverelation.

It is also possible to combine the two constitutive relationships shownin FIGS. 6 and 7 together to produce a single, composite constitutiverelationship, such as is shown in FIG. 11, relating deposit grain sizedirectly as a function of Polarity Ratio. In such a case, the designerspecifies a grain size G_(s) and from the continuous constitutiverelationship, a Polarity Ratio Q_(s) is identified.

Any of the constitutive relations discussed above could be graphical asshown, or tabular, or mathematical or any other rule or method ofillustrating the relationship, including for either or bothrelationships, a single point and slope information at that point. Theslope may be explicitly set forth within the relation, or, may beimplicitly understood by the system designer based on general principlesregarding alloy thermodynamics and kinetics and other information. Theslope information may even be as limited as a sign (+ or −) andintuition as to degree.

FIG. 11 which represents a generic system, also shows a constitutiverelation that is a single point, such as indicated at R, and slopeinformation (illustrated by the thin solid line, but could be aquantity) at that point. As shown in FIG. 10, which presents informationfor a Ni—W system, the slope at R is about 200 nm. (Note, FIG. 11 isintended to show two different situations: one, illustrated by thecurve, shows a continuous function constitutive curved relationship; theother, represented by the point R and the slope line, indicate a linearconstitutive relationship.)

The different degrees of resolution of the constitutive relationsdiscussed above may have an effect upon the degree of control that thedesigner has in achieving the desired nanocrystalline grain size. Ingeneral, a more highly resolved constitutive relationship will providemore precise control, while less resolution (as, for example, when onlyone data point is available and intuition is used to predict theconstitutive relation) will provide less, and the least continuous, forinstance a single point and a slope, or merely intuition about the signof a slope, will provide the least amount of control. For someapplications, precise control will be required, and a more continuousresolved relationship will be required. For other applications, lessprecise control will be required, and a less continuous constitutiverelationship may be satisfactory. As is discussed below, for mostsystems, tighter control is generally possible for smaller grain sizedeposits.

Once a general constitutive relationship of grain size as a function ofPolarity Ratio has been established, then to achieve a different grainsize, the designer must change Polarity Ratio in the direction indicatedby the relationship to change the grain size. This can be done bychanging the amplitude or the duration of the negative portions of thepulse relative to that of the positive portions, or both as discussedbelow.

If either of the constitutive relations can be expressed by a continuousfunction, then the concept of an index parameter is relativelyunnecessary, or simplified. The designer simply selects the PolarityRatio, based on the specified grain size, if a composite relation isavailable, or, if not then the proportion of electro-active element,and, from that, the Polarity Ratio, in turn.

If either of the necessary relationships is not expressed in acontinuous fashion, then the concept of index parameters may be helpful.For instance, in a case where a composite constitutive relation has beenestablished expressing grain size as a function of Polarity Ratio, suchas is shown with reference to FIG. 11, the designer specifies a desiredgrain size G_(s), and from this grain size and the constitutiverelationship, determines a Polarity Ratio. The Polarity Ratio isdetermined by comparing the specified grain size G_(s) to an index grainsize G_(I0) for which a corresponding Polarity Ratio Q_(I0) has alreadybeen explicitly established.

The slope information, embodied in the thin solid line identified as aslope, is applied to the corresponding Polarity Ratio Q_(I0) to derivethe Polarity Ratio Q_(D*), that corresponds to G_(s). If some other rulefor filling in the constitutive relationship other than a slope isprovided, such as a rule, or a set of points (which can be used forcurve fitting or other interpolation), or intuition, then that isapplied to the Polarity Ratio that corresponds to the index grain sizeG_(I0). Note that the derived Polarity Ratio Q_(D*) might turn out todiffer from a Polarity Ratio Q_(D) that might be determined from arelationship that can be expressed as a continuous curve. Thediscrepancy will depend on the degree to which the slope informationconforms to an actual continuous relation.

Similarly, if rather than a composite constitutive relationship relatinggrain size as a function of Polarity Ratio, the designer uses twoconstitutive relationships: one relating grain size as a function ofproportion of electro-active element such as shown with reference toFIG. 7, and the second relating proportion of electro-active element asa function of Polarity Ratio, as shown with reference to FIG. 6, and oneor both of these are not expressed as a continuous function, then twosimilar operations are conducted. These are not fully illustrated, inthe interest of preserving clarity in the graphs. However, the conceptis identical to the technique illustrated with respect to the compositerelation shown with reference to FIG. 11.

First, from specified grain size G_(s), a proportion C_(D*) ofelectro-active element is determined. The proportion is determined bycomparing the specified grain size G_(s) to an index grain size G_(I0)for which a corresponding proportion C_(D) of electro-active element hasalready been explicitly established. The slope information is applied tothe corresponding proportion C_(D) to arrive at a determined proportionC_(D*). If some other rule for filling in the constitutive relationshipother than slope information is provided, such as a rule, or a set ofpoints (which can be used for curve fitting or other interpolation), orintuition, then that is applied to the proportion C_(D) that correspondsto the index grain size G_(I0) to arrive at C_(D*).

Second, from the intermediately determined proportion C_(D*), a PolarityRatio is determined by comparing the intermediately determinedproportion to an index proportion C_(I1) for which a correspondingPolarity Ratio P_(D) has already been explicitly established. The slopeis applied to the corresponding Polarity Ratio P_(D) to arrive at aderived Polarity Ratio P_(D*). If some other rule for filling in theconstitutive relationship other than a slope is provided, such as arule, or a set of points (which can be used for curve fitting or otherinterpolation), or intuition, then that is applied to the Polarity Ratiothat corresponds to the index proportion P_(D*).

The foregoing describes how the designer designs the system. The methodof using the designed system and electrodepositing works as follows. Thesystem is driven by the power supply to provide periods of both apositive current and a negative current at different times as specifiedby the system designer, which corresponds to a specific, single PolarityRatio. This in turn results in a specific, deposit composition, whichhas a proportion of the electro-active element that will achieve thespecified grain size. Thus, the specified grain size is achieved. Thus,to design a system, a constitutive relation is required, relating grainsize to Polarity Ratio. To run the system, only a single point, relatinga single average grain size to a single Polarity Ratio is required, orused.

Not only is grain size controllable through BPP, but the macroscopicquality of these deposits is significantly better than that achieved byother processing means. As previously mentioned, the grain size of amulti-component electro-deposit can be controlled by precise control ofbath temperature, according to known techniques, illustrated in FIG. 1.

The macroscopic quality of the deposits, manifested throughcross-sectional scanning electron microscopy, is significantly betterfor the BPP samples. FIG. 12 schematically shows such an electronmicroscopy scan, and displays the cross-sections of a deposit that wasdeposited using a method of an invention hereof of bipolar pulsing. Ithas nearly identical grain size and composition to that shown in FIG. 4,discussed above, which was deposited under bath temperature control withdirect current.

In general, using negative current pulsing as disclosed herein enablesfabricating objects having nanocrystalline grain structures that aresubstantially free of cracks and voids. By substantially free of voids,or cracks, it is meant that neither voids nor cracks, respectively,created during the deposition, dominate the fracture, wear or corrosionproperties of the nanocrystalline body. The failure modes of the articleare dominated by phenomena other than crack initiation and propagationfrom pre-existing voids, or pre-existing cracks.

Additional properties that nanocrystalline grain structure affects arecorrosion resistance and wear resistance. Both of these factors aredirectly related to grain size, in general, typically, with smallergrain size providing better resistance to wear. In some alloy systemssuch as passivating alloys, smaller grain size also provides betterresistance to corrosion. Thus, BPP can be used to tailor the grain sizeand structure to achieve a desired degree of wear resistance or adesired degree of corrosion resistance.

Negative current pulsing clearly produces a more homogeneous deposit,without cracks 402 or voids 404.

In addition to this quality improvement, negative current pulsing offersadditional advantages over other methods. The current density of thenegative pulse can easily be varied at the power source at any timeduring deposition, and thus at any spatial location throughout thethickness of the deposit. This makes it possible to create gradedmicrostructures, where grain size is controlled throughout the depositthickness. Bipolar pulsing allows for microstructure control with aconstant bath temperature, thereby avoiding the time and energyconsumption to change bath temperature. Similarly, as shown in FIG. 13,layered structures in which layers 1302 of one grain size alternate witha second layer 1304 of a second, different grain size are possible. Thedifference in grain size between adjacent layers can be anything frombarely noticeable (plus or minus 1 nanometer) to as large as fiftynanometers or larger. Moreover, regions of different grain size can becontinuously graded, as at 1306, rather than discrete or abrupt, as at1308. Those concepts apply also to any combinations of layered andgraded deposits including uniform, alternating, laminate structures,irregular patterns of grain size variation through the depositthickness, and deposits with both smoothly graded and layeredcomponents. Using bipolar pulsing, sequential deposits upon differentelectrodes can be produced in the same liquid with generally increasingor decreasing grain size requirements throughout the thickness (and evenreversals thereof) without a need for chemical additions to the bath.Bipolar pulsing simplifies the electrodeposition process by requiringone liquid composition at a single temperature for all desiredmicrostructures. This advantage will save time and money in anyindustrial scale operation where bath temperature and compositionchanges create costly down-time.

Because there is a direct relationship between composition and grainsize of the deposit, all that has been said above about varying grainsize throughout the thickness of a deposit also applies to composition.Thus, if composition, rather than grain size, is of paramount interestto a designer, then an object can be made with a specifically tailoredcompositional gradient, or layer structure.

As has been mentioned above the magnetic properties of nanocrystallinemetals show a higher combination of permeability and saturation magneticflux density than possible in traditional microcrystalline metals. Theseproperties are important for soft magnetic applications and are enhancedas grain size is decreased to the nano-scale. Using bipolar pulsing,such a nanostructured alloy can be produced to exploit these properties.Bipolar pulsing may also be used to put a biocompatible coating ofdesired structure and properties on a conductive body.

Commercial Applications

The disclosed method of bipolar pulsing to achieve grain size controlcan be used in any existing electroplating industry, with the additionof a power source equipped with positive and negative current capabilityand the ability to reverse between positive and negative in a controlledmanner. As outlined in the previous section, BPP adds the ability toengineer electrodeposits having graded nanocrystalline sizes withoutcomplications, as compared to current methods for crystal size grading.For example, a deposit could have a relatively large (microcrystalline)grain size at a substrate interface, with a grain size that could becontinuously reduced to the single nanometer scale at a surface and evento extremely small sizes of two nanometers or less. This type of coatingwould provide the superior wear and corrosion resistance of a nanometerscale crystalline coating, with improved ductility and toughness beneaththe surface as compared to a uniformly nanocrystalline deposit.

BPP also simplifies the electrodeposition process by reducing the needfor costly and complicated liquid temperature and chemistry control.This would decrease the difficulty of forecasting costs due to variablechemical needs and would also increase the flexibility of the platingoperation by allowing widely different microstructures andnano-structures to be deposited from the same liquid. In addition, thequality of deposits could be vastly improved in certain cases asevidenced by FIG. 12. This quality improvement will manifest itself inreduced post-deposition surface finishing requirements and improvederosion/corrosion resistance.

BPP has been reduced to practice in the Ni—W system. It is also widelyapplicable to other electrodeposited, multi-component systems that showa relationship between composition and grain size, including but notlimited to: nickel-molybdenum (Ni—Mo); nickel-phosphorous (Ni—P);nickel-tungsten-boron (Ni—W—B); iron-molybdenum (Fe—Mo);iron-phosphorous (Fe—P); cobalt-molybdenum (Co—Mo); cobalt-phosphorous(Co—P); cobalt-zinc (Co—Zn); iron-tungsten (Fe—W); copper-silver(Cu—Ag); cobalt-nickel-phosphorous (Co—Ni—P); cobalt-tungsten (Co—W);and chromium-phosphorous (Cr—P). This process will not only benefitcoating applications, but also the production of thick, free-standingbulk size nanocrystalline structured components.

In general, the foregoing has illustrated changing the Polarity Ratio bychanging the amplitude of the negative pulse component. It is alsopossible to change the Polarity Ratio to achieve similar results bychanging the duration of the negative pulse (t_(neg)) relative to theduration of the positive pulse t_(pos), instead of changing only thenegative current density amplitude, as was done above. Further, both theduration and the amplitude can be changed. It is also possible to alterthe shape of the positive and negative pulses, such that they are nolonger square waves as illustrated schematically in FIG. 5. Theimportant quantification of the negative pulsing is the Polarity Ratio.

Turning now to a closer look at the relation between Polarity Ratio andgrain size of a deposit for various systems, the discussion below is ofthe Ni—W system. The slope of the composite relationship showing grainsize as a function of Polarity Ratio is generally positive, as shown inFIG. 11: namely relatively larger Polarity Ratio, results in relativelylarger grain size. FIG. 11 shows the relationships for a generic systemthat behaves similar to the Ni—W system. FIG. 10 shows data from a Ni—Wsystem as described above in Table 1. The relationship describing grainsize as a function of Polarity Ratio is itself a composite relationship,which depends on two other relationships for its nature: 1) therelationship describing proportion of electro-active material depositedas a function of Polarity Ratio; and 2) the relationship describinggrain size as a function of proportion of electro-active materialdeposited.

For all systems, the relation describing proportion of depositedelectro-active material as a function of Polarity Ratio is generally asshown in FIG. 6, with a generally negative slope, such that forrelatively larger Polarity Ratio (and thus relative larger absolutevalue of negative current density, as compared to positive) theproportion of electro-active material in the deposit is relativelysmaller. FIG. 14 shows this relationship for the Ni—W system asdescribed above in Table 1.

In contrast, for different systems, the other characterizingrelationship, describing grain size as a function of depositedproportion of electro-active material, can have either a positive or anegative slope. Thus, the sign of the slope of the relationshipdescribing grain size as a function of Polarity Ratio, and itsmagnitude, depends on the sign and magnitude of the slope of therelationship describing grain size as a function of proportion ofelectro-active material for the system in question.

For the Ni—W system discussed above, the sign of the slope of thisrelationship as shown generally with reference to FIG. 7 and FIG. 15 isgenerally negative and varying. Thus, the slope of the compositerelationship describing grain size as a function of Polarity Ratio isgenerally positive, as shown in FIG. 11.

There are also systems for which the sign of the slope of therelationship showing grain size as a function of proportion ofelectro-active material, as shown generally with reference to FIG. 8, isgenerally positive and varying. Thus, the slope of the compositerelationship showing grain size as a function of Polarity Ratio isgenerally negative, as shown in FIG. 16. An example of such a system maybe the Cu—Ag system.

At the time of this writing, there is not much knowledge regarding thegeneral shape, and the slope in particular, of a characteristic curve orrelation relating grain size as a function of proportion ofelectro-active element in a deposit, such as shown in FIG. 8, where therelationship has curvature, with a generally positive slope, or FIG. 7,where the relationship has curvature with a generally negative andvarying slope. (Note that it may be that the curve approximates astraight line over the relevant range of grain sizes.)

However, as more work is done in this area, more such relations willbecome known. Once known, the general principals taught herein can beapplied, and the relation can be combined with a relation showingproportion of electro-active element as a function of Polarity Ratio,such as shown at FIG. 6, to arrive at a composite relation showing grainsize as a function of Polarity Ratio, such as shown in FIG. 11 (positiveslope) or FIG. 16 (negative slope).

Variations

While the foregoing has discussed a specific binary system for Ni—W,including liquid chemistry and plating parameters, the extent of presentinventions hereof are not limited in this respect. Multiple liquidchemistry variations and plating parameters can be used toelectro-deposit binary alloys having a highly controlled nanocrystallinestructure.

The liquid has been generally referred to above as a bath. The liquidneed not be a stationary body of liquid in a closed vessel. The liquidcan be flowing, such as through a conduit, or streaming through anatmosphere as in a jet, projected at an electrode. All of thediscussions above regarding a bath can also apply to such a movingliquid composition. One or both electrodes can be a conduit throughwhich or around which the fluid flows.

Inventions hereof also include other metal systems that can beelectrodeposited with a controlled nanocrystalline structure. Thesesystems need not be binary alloys, but also can be ternary and highercombinations of elements. Significant literature exists discussingcrystalline metals (nanocrystalline and microcrystalline, both of whichare relevant) that are electrodeposited from aqueous solutions. It isbelieved that techniques of inventions hereof can also be applied tosuch systems, including but not limited to: nickel-molybdenum (Ni—Mo);nickel-phosphorous (Ni—P); nickel-tungsten-boron (Ni—W—B);iron-molybdenum (Fe—Mo); iron-phosphorous (Fe—P); cobalt-molybdenum(Co—Mo); cobalt-phosphorous (Co—P); cobalt-zinc (Co—Zn); iron-tungsten(Fe—W); copper-silver (Cu—Ag); cobalt-nickel-phosphorous (Co—Ni—P);cobalt-tungsten (Co—W) and chromium-phosphorous (Cr—P). Other systemsthat can provide at least two metal salts in aqueous solutions are alsopossible.

Other types of solutions are possible, including but not limited to:non-aqueous, alcohol, HCl (liquid hydrogen chloride), and molten salt.If a molten salt bath is used, the operating temperature may be higherthan for an aqueous bath.

The shape shown for the waveform in FIG. 5 is generally a square wave.The wave need not be square. In general, it can be any shape that variesbetween positive and negative levels, as compared to an electricalground (zero), including sine, cosine, saw tooth, etc. The PolarityRatio is an important parameter during the deposition which must begreater than zero and less than 1. Its magnitude will govern theproportion of electro-active material in the deposit, which will, inturn, govern the grain size in the deposit.

Another important consideration is the behavior of a system that hasmore than two components. There will still be an element that is removedpreferentially from the forming crystal structure under the influence ofnegative polarity applied current. Typically, this is the element withthe highest oxidation potential. The element with the next highestoxidation potential will also be removed to some extent from thecrystal, to an extent that depends on the details of the system, such asliquid composition and the differences in oxidation potential of thevarious components.

Much of the foregoing discusses deposits in terms of unitary deposits,or bulk deposits. A very useful application for inventions hereof is ascoatings upon other substrates. For instance nanocrystalline metaldeposits can be placed as coatings upon substrates for use in much thesame way that hard chrome coatings are used, at the time of thiswriting. Such hard metal coating can be used to establish resistance towear, abrasion and corrosion. Such coatings can be used to establish adesired surface property, such as, including but not limited to: lustre,reflectivity, color protection against oxidation, biocompatibility, etc.

Another commercial use for which inventions disclosed herein can beapplied is for reworking or rebuilding machine tool components, andother components that need the same sort of rehabilitation. Such toolswear down during use, and become smaller in various dimensions. At sometime, they become unfit for their intended use. They can be rebuilt totheir original, or to suitable dimensions, by using the tool as anelectrode substrate and electroplating metal upon the substrate to adegree that returns the substrate to a size and to dimensions that itcan be used again for its original purpose, or, in some cases, for asimilar related but different purpose. Basically, the electroplatingoperation increases the volume of the worn part to a degree that itachieves a desired geometry, or tolerance and becomes useful.

Coatings with nanocrystalline grain structures achieved according tomethods of inventions hereof can be applied to a wide range of metalsubstrates, including, but not limited to: steel, stainless steel,aluminum, brass, and even to plastic substrates with electricallyconductive surfaces.

Control of Processes

The degree of control available over grain size depends upon the system,and the selected grain size itself. In general, the designer and theoperator of a process have more precise control for relatively smallergrain sizes. For both the case similar to Ni—W, where the relationdefining grain size as a function of deposit proportion has a generallynegative slope, as shown in FIG. 7, and the case with the opposite,positive slope, such as shown in FIG. 8, which is believed to describe aAg—Cu or similar system, there is most possibility for the most preciseuse of the invention with relatively smaller grain sizes.

This is because, for both cases, typically, the magnitude of the slopeis relatively lower for smaller grain sizes. (Stated equivalently, themagnitude of the first derivative of the function relating proportion ofelectro-active element to grain size is smaller (in absolute value) forsmaller grain sizes. Taking for instance the negative slope case shownin FIG. 7, for relatively smaller grain size, change in grain size isrelatively insensitive to a change in proportion of electro-activeelement, as compared to relatively larger grain size. Thus, thepractitioner need not be as precise in achieving the target parameter ofproportion electro-active element, but will still be very close to thedesired grain size. For the case with the negative slope dependency,this region of tighter control occurs with generally higher proportionof electro-active element. In contrast, for lower proportions ofelectro-active element, the change in grain size is dramatic for arelatively small change in proportion.

For the case with the positive slope dependency, as shown with referenceto FIG. 8, this region of tighter control occurs with generally lowerproportion of electro-active element. In contrast, for higherproportions of electro-active element, the change in grain size isdramatic for a relatively small change in proportion. This difference inslope magnitude is present in the cases shown. However, there are somesystems where this generalization does not hold, and the slope isgenerally constant from small to large grain sizes. In those cases,control is not dependent on grain size, and other factors may dominate acontrol issue.

The dependence of grain size upon proportion is only one part of thecomposite relationship showing grain size as a function of PolarityRatio. However, the other part of that relationship, showing proportionof electro-active material as a function of Polarity Ratio, has its ownregion of better control, which will depend upon the shape and locationof the curve. For instance, as shown in FIG. 6, the designer will havebetter control over the proportion of electro-active element at thelower ranges of the proportion scale, where the curve has a relativelysmaller (absolute value) and more constant slope, as compared to thehigher proportion ranges, where the slope is very largely negative.

Partial Summary

Inventions disclosed and described herein include methods of depositinga nanocrystalline alloy on a substrate, articles of manufactureincorporating such a deposited alloy, as well as methods for determiningparameters of material selection and electrode voltage supply to achievea desired grain size.

Thus, this document discloses many related inventions.

One invention disclosed herein is a method for depositing an alloy of asystem comprising at least two elements, one of which being mostelectro-active and at least one of which being a metal. Such an alloydeposit has a specified nanocrystalline average grain size. The methodcomprises the steps of: providing a liquid comprising dissolved speciesof at least two elements of the system, at least one of which elementsis the metal and at least one of which elements is the mostelectro-active; providing a first electrode and a second electrode inthe liquid, coupled to a power supply configured to supply electricalpotential having periods of positive polarity and negative polarity atdifferent times; and driving the power supply to achieve the specifiedgrain size deposit at the second electrode, with a non-constantelectrical potential having positive polarity and negative polarity atdifferent times, which times and polarities characterize a PolarityRatio.

The step of driving the power supply may comprise driving the powersupply to establish a Polarity Ratio that has been selected withreference to a constitutive relation that relates the specifiedelectrodeposited grain size to a corresponding Polarity Ratio. Theconstitutive relation may also include slope information that relateschange in grain size to change in Polarity Ratio.

According to one preferred embodiment, first for a case that the slopeinformation indicates a positive slope at the index grain size: for aspecified grain size i) relatively larger than an index grain size, arelatively larger Polarity Ratio is used than a Polarity Ratiocorresponding to the index grain size; and ii) for a specified grainsize relatively smaller than the index grain size, a Polarity Ratio isused that is relatively smaller than the Polarity Ratio corresponding tothe index grain size. On the other hand, for a case that the slopeinformation indicates a negative slope at the index grain size for aspecified grain size i) relatively larger than the index grain size, arelatively smaller Polarity Ratio is used than the Polarity Ratiocorresponding to the index grain size; and ii) for a specified grainsize relatively smaller than the index grain size, a relatively largerPolarity Ratio is used than the Polarity Ratio corresponding to theindex grain size. According to this embodiment, using a relativelysmaller Polarity Ratio can comprise using relatively less time atnegative polarity. Or, it may comprise using relatively lower absolutevalue amplitude negative polarity, or both. Similarly, the step of usinga relatively larger Polarity Ratio may comprise using relatively moretime at negative polarity. Or it may comprise using relatively higherabsolute value amplitude negative polarity or both.

According to yet another set of related preferred embodiments, the stepof driving the power supply may comprising driving the power supply togenerate a sine wave, or a square wave.

With a related embodiment, the step of driving a power supply maycomprise driving the power supply with a non-constant electricalpotential, the Polarity Ratio supplied during deposition having beendetermined with reference to: a constitutive relation that relates thespecified electrodeposited grain size to a corresponding proportion inthe deposit of the active element; and a constitutive relation thatrelates the corresponding proportion in the deposit of the activeelement to a Polarity Ratio supplied during deposition.

According to one version of such an embodiment, the step of driving thepower supply with a non-constant electrical potential is conducted wherethe Polarity Ratio supplied during deposition has been determined by:identifying a proportion of active element that corresponds to thespecified grain size; and identifying a Polarity Ratio that correspondsto the identified proportion that corresponds to the specifiedelectrodeposited grain size.

For one variation of such a method, the power supply is driven: toachieve an electro-deposit composition having a relatively lowerproportion of the relatively most active element than the proportion ofthat element in an index composition, by using relatively greaterPolarity Ratio than a Polarity Ratio that corresponds to that indexcomposition based on the constitutive relation; and to achieve anelectro-deposit composition having a relatively greater proportion ofthe relatively most active element than the proportion of that elementin the index composition, by using relatively lower Polarity Ratio thana Polarity Ratio that corresponds to that index composition.

Still another embodiment of an invention hereof is a method fordepositing an alloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one ofwhich being most electro-active and at least one of which elements beinga metal, an alloy deposit having a specified nanocrystalline averagegrain size. The method comprises the steps of: providing a liquidcomprising dissolved species of the at least two elements at least oneof which elements is the metal and at least one of which elements is themost electro-active; providing a first electrode and a second electrodein the liquid, coupled to a power supply configured to supply electricalpotential having periods of positive polarity and negative polarity atdifferent times; and driving the power supply to achieve the specifiedgrain size deposit at the second electrode, with a non-constantelectrical potential having periods of positive polarity and negativepolarity at different times. The Polarity Ratio supplied duringdeposition will have been determined with reference to: a firstconstitutive relation that relates electrodeposited average grain sizeof a deposit to a proportion of the most electro-active metal in thedeposit; and a second constitutive relation that relates the proportionof the most electro-active metal in a deposit to Polarity Ratio duringdeposition.

With one version of this embodiment, the step of driving the powersupply comprises the steps of: comparing the specified average grainsize to at least one index grain size and, using the first constitutiverelation, identifying a proportion of active metal in a depositcorresponding to the specified grain size; comparing the correspondingproportion of active metal to at least one index proportion of activemetal and using the second constitutive relationship, identifying aPolarity Ratio corresponding to the proportion of most active metal thatcorresponds to the specified grain size; and driving the power supply toestablish the identified Polarity Ratio that corresponds to theproportion of most active metal that corresponds to the specified grainsize.

The first constitutive relation may include an explicit correspondencebetween the specified grain size and a proportion of most active metal.

The first constitutive relation may include an explicit correspondencebetween an index grain size that differs from the specified grain size,and a proportion of active metal, and also may include slope informationthat relates change in grain size to change in proportion of most activemetal, which enables deriving a proportion of most active metal thatcorresponds to the specified grain size.

Also according to this embodiment of an invention hereof, the secondconstitutive relation may include an explicit correspondence between theproportion of most active metal that corresponds to the specified grainsize and Polarity Ratio.

An alternative version of this embodiment is that the secondconstitutive relation includes an explicit correspondence between anindex proportion of most active metal that differs from the proportionof most active metal that corresponds to the specified grain size, andalso includes slope information that relates change in proportion ofmost active metal to change in Polarity Ratio, which enables deriving aPolarity Ratio that corresponds to the proportion of most active metalthat corresponds to the specified grain size.

Yet another embodiment of an invention disclosed herein is a method fordetermining parameters for depositing at an electrode, an alloy of asystem comprising at least two elements, one of which is mostelectro-active and at least one of which is a metal. The alloy deposithas a specified nanocrystalline average grain size. The deposition usesa first electrode and a second electrode, at which the alloy willdeposit. The electrodes reside in a liquid comprising dissolved speciesof at least two elements of the system, at least one of which elementsis the metal and at least one of which is the most electro-activeelement. The electrodes are driven by a power supply configured toprovide electrical potential having periods of positive polarity andnegative polarity at different times. The method of determiningparameters comprises the steps of: selecting a bath compositioncomprising dissolved species of the at least two elements of the system;and determining a Polarity Ratio to supply to the electrodes duringdeposition by: determining a proportion of the most active element inthe deposit composition that corresponds to the specified grain size,based on a constitutive relation that expresses average grain size as afunction of proportion; and determining a Polarity Ratio supplied duringdeposit that corresponds to the proportion that corresponds to thespecified grain size, based on a constitutive relation that expressesproportion as a function of Polarity Ratio.

In yet another preferred embodiment, an invention that is disclosed is amethod for determining parameters for depositing at an electrode, analloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one of which is mostelectro-active and at least one of which is metal, the deposit having aspecified nanocrystalline grain size, the deposition using a firstelectrode and a second electrode at which the alloy will deposit, theelectrodes residing in a liquid comprising dissolved species of at leasttwo elements of the system, at least one of which is the metal and atleast one of which is the most electro-active, the electrodes beingdriven by a power supply that is configured to provide electricalpotential having periods of positive polarity and negative polarity atdifferent times. The method of determining parameters comprises thesteps of: selecting a bath composition comprising dissolved species ofthe at least two elements, and determining a Polarity Ratio to supply tothe electrodes during deposition, which corresponds to the specifiedgrain size, based on a constitutive relation that expresses grain sizeas a function of supplied Polarity Ratio.

According to another preferred embodiment, an invention hereof is anarticle of manufacture of a metal alloy comprising at least twoelements, the article comprising: a first layer region having ananocrystalline structure with a first average grain size; and adjacentthe first layer region, and in contact therewith, a second layer regionhaving a nanocrystalline structure with a second average grain size,which second size differs from the first size. With this embodiment, thearticle exhibits failure modes that are dominated by phenomena otherthan the propagation of pre-existing cracks.

A similar embodiment exhibits failure modes that are dominated byphenomena other than crack initiation and propagation from pre-existingvoids, rather than cracks.

A related preferred embodiment further entails an article, furtherwherein, one of the layer regions has a nanocrystalline structure with avariation in average grain size, such that the variation region has afirst average grain size at a first location and spaced therefrom, at asecond location, the variation region has a second, different averagegrain size, with varying average grain sizes between the first andsecond locations.

A similar preferred embodiment of an invention hereof is an article ofmanufacture of a metal alloy comprising at least two elements, thearticle comprising a region having a nanocrystalline structure with avariation in average grain size, such that the variation region has: afirst average grain size at a first location; and spaced therefrom, at asecond location, a second, different average grain size, with variedaverage grain sizes between the first and second locations. Further, thearticle exhibits failure modes that are dominated by phenomena otherthan crack propagation from pre-existing cracks.

A similar embodiment exhibits failure modes that are dominated byphenomena other than crack initiation and propagation from pre-existingvoids, rather than cracks.

For yet another embodiment, an invention hereof is a method fordepositing an alloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one ofwhich being most electro-active and at least one of which being a metal,an alloy deposit having a first layer region having a nanocrystallinestructure with a first average grain size adjacent said first layerregion, and in contact therewith, a second layer region having ananocrystalline structure with a second average grain size, which secondsize differs from the first size. The method comprises the steps of:providing a liquid comprising dissolved species of at least two elementsof the system, at least one of which elements is the metal and at leastone of which elements is the most electro-active; providing a firstelectrode and a second electrode in the liquid, coupled to a powersupply configured to supply electrical potential having periods ofpositive polarity and negative polarity at different times; driving thepower supply for a first period of time to achieve the first specifiedgrain size deposit at the second electrode, with a non-constantelectrical potential having positive polarity and negative polarity atdifferent times, which times and polarities characterize a firstPolarity Ratio; and driving the power supply for a second period of timeto achieve the second specified grain size deposit at the secondelectrode, with a non-constant electrical potential having positivepolarity and negative polarity at different times, which times andpolarities characterize a second Polarity Ratio that differs from thefirst Polarity Ratio.

According to a related embodiment, one of the layer regions comprises aregion having a nanocrystalline structure with a variation in averagegrain size, such that the variation region has a first average grainsize at a first location and spaced therefrom, at a second location, thevariation region has a second, different average grain size, withvarying average grain sizes between the first and second locations. Thestep of driving the power supply for a second period of time furthercomprises driving the power supply with a non-constant electricalpotential having positive polarity and negative polarity at differenttimes, which times and polarities characterize a range of non-constantPolarity Ratios that correspond to a range of different average grainsizes.

Still another embodiment of an invention hereof is a method fordepositing an alloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one ofwhich being most electro-active and at least one of which being a metal,the method comprising the steps of: providing an electroplating liquidcomprising dissolved elements of the system; providing a first electrodeand a second electrode in the liquid; driving the power supply for afirst period of time with a non-constant electrical potential thatcharacterizes a first Polarity Ratio; and driving the power supply for asecond period of time with a non-constant electrical potential thatcharacterize a second Polarity Ratio that differs from the firstPolarity Ratio.

According to another embodiment of an invention hereof, a method is fordepositing an alloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one ofwhich being most electro-active and at least one of which being a metal,an alloy deposit having a variation in average grain size, such that thedeposit has a first average grain size at a first location and spacedtherefrom, at a second location, the deposit has a second, differentaverage grain size, with varying average grain sizes between the firstand second locations. The method comprises the steps of: providing aliquid comprising dissolved species of at least two elements of thesystem, at least one of which elements is the metal and at least one ofwhich elements is the most electro-active; providing a first electrodeand a second electrode in the liquid, coupled to a power supplyconfigured to supply electrical potential having periods of positivepolarity and negative polarity at different times; and driving the powersupply for a period of time with a non-constant electrical potentialhaving positive polarity and negative polarity at different times, whichtimes and polarities characterize a range of non-constant PolarityRatios, which correspond to a range of different average grain sizes.

One more embodiment of an invention hereof is a method for depositing analloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one of which beingmost electro-active and at least one of which being a metal. The methodcomprises the steps of: providing an electro-plating liquid comprisingelements of the system; providing a first electrode and a secondelectrode in the liquid, coupled to a power supply; and driving thepower supply for a period of time characterized by a range ofnon-constant Polarity Ratios, which correspond to a range of differentaverage grain sizes.

Preferred embodiments of any of the method inventions mentioned hereininclude a method where the deposit comprises a coating upon a substrateor an object free-standing from any electrode. The coating may bedecorative, and/or may protect against abrasion, corrosion, and/or mayfunction as a hard chrome coating. The substrate may comprise steel,stainless steel, aluminum, brass, many metals, or plastic having anelectro-conductive surface.

For any of these variations involving constitutive relations, at leastone of the first and second constitutive relations may comprises acontinuous function, a table, a mathematical formula, a point and slopeinformation, or any combination thereof.

Preferred embodiments of any of the article of manufacture inventionsmentioned herein include an article where the deposit comprises acoating upon a substrate or an object free-standing from any electrode.The coating may be decorative, and/or may protect against abrasion,and/or corrosion, and/or may function as a hard chrome coating. Thesubstrate may comprise steel, stainless steel, aluminum, brass, manymetals, or plastic having an electro-conductive surface.

Many techniques and aspects of the inventions have been describedherein. The person skilled in the art will understand that many of thesetechniques can be used with other disclosed techniques, even if theyhave not been specifically described in use together. For instance,layered embodiments can themselves be graded with varying grain sizewithin a layer, or can be arranged as discrete layers, with varyinggrain size from layer to layer, in a graded fashion. Differing PolarityRatios can be achieved by varying the duration or the amplitude of thenegative portion of the electrical signal or both. The constitutiverelations can be continuous, such as functions, or densely packedtables, or less continuous, and they can be highly continuous at oneportion of their range, and less so at other portions. The coatings mayhave more than one property, such as abrasion resistant and decorative,in any combination of all of the properties listed and other reasonablydesirable properties. The methods of coating described can be used withthe methods described for selecting parameters or with any other methodfor selecting parameters that achieves useful results. The resulting endproduct may retain a substrate, or may be wholly coating, the substratehaving been removed by some appropriate fashion. The coatings may alsobe used with coatings that have average grain size that are larger thanthe nanocrystalline scale for other portions of an article, for instanceinterior or exterior to the nanocrystalline region fashioned accordingto an invention herof.

This disclosure describes and discloses more than one invention. Theinventions are set forth in the claims of this and related documents,not only as filed, but also as developed during prosecution of anypatent application based on this disclosure. The inventors intend toclaim all of the various inventions to the limits permitted by the priorart, as it is subsequently determined to be. No feature described hereinis essential to each invention disclosed herein. Thus, the inventorsintend that no features described herein, but not claimed in anyparticular claim of any patent based on this disclosure, should beincorporated into any such claim.

Some assemblies of hardware, or groups of steps, are referred to hereinas an invention. However, this is not an admission that any suchassemblies or groups are necessarily patentably distinct inventions,particularly as contemplated by laws and regulations regarding thenumber of inventions that will be examined in one patent application, orunity of invention. It is intended to be a short way of saying anembodiment of an invention.

An abstract is submitted herewith. It is emphasized that this abstractis being provided to comply with the rule requiring an abstract thatwill allow examiners and other searchers to quickly ascertain thesubject matter of the technical disclosure. It is submitted with theunderstanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scopeor meaning of the claims, as promised by the Patent Office's rule.

The foregoing discussion should be understood as illustrative and shouldnot be considered to be limiting in any sense. While the inventions havebeen particularly shown and described with references to preferredembodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the artthat various changes in form and details may be made therein withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope of the inventions as defined by theclaims.

The corresponding structures, materials, acts and equivalents of allmeans or step plus function elements in the claims below are intended toinclude any structure, material, or acts for performing the functions incombination with other claimed elements as specifically claimed.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for depositing an alloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one of which being most electro-active and at least one of which being a metal, an alloy deposit having a specified nanocrystalline average grain size, comprising the steps of: a. providing a liquid comprising dissolved species of at least two elements of the system, at least one of which elements is the metal and at least one of which elements is the most electro-active; b. providing a first electrode and a second electrode in the liquid, coupled to a power supply configured to supply electrical potential having periods of positive polarity and negative polarity at different times; and c. driving the power supply to achieve the specified grain size deposit at the second electrode, with a non-constant electrical potential having positive polarity and negative polarity at different times, which times and polarities characterize a Polarity Ratio.
 2. The method of depositing of claim 1, further where said step of driving the power supply comprises driving the power supply to establish a Polarity Ratio, the Polarity Ratio having been selected with reference to a constitutive relation that relates the specified electrodeposited grain size to a corresponding Polarity Ratio.
 3. The method of depositing of claim 2, further where said step of driving the power supply comprises comparing the specified average grain size to at least one index grain size and driving the power supply to establish a Polarity Ratio, the Polarity Ratio having been selected with reference to a constitutive relation that relates the at least one index grain size to a corresponding Polarity Ratio and which also includes slope information that relates change in grain size to change in Polarity Ratio.
 4. The method of claim 3, the step of driving the power supply comprising driving the power supply with a non-constant electrical potential having both positive and negative polarity, the Polarity Ratio having been determined by: a. for a case that the slope information indicates a positive slope at the index grain size, for a specified grain size: i. relatively larger than an index grain size, using relatively larger Polarity Ratio than a Polarity Ratio corresponding to the index grain size; and ii. relatively smaller than the index grain size, using relatively smaller Polarity Ratio than the Polarity Ratio corresponding to the index grain size; and b. for a case that the slope information indicates a negative slope at the index grain size for a specified grain size relatively: i. larger than the index grain size, using relatively smaller Polarity Ratio than the Polarity Ratio corresponding to the index grain size; and ii. smaller than the index grain size by using relatively larger Polarity Ratio than the Polarity Ratio corresponding to the index grain size.
 5. The method of claim 4, the step of using a relatively smaller Polarity Ratio comprising using relatively less time at negative polarity.
 6. The method of claim 4, the step of using relatively smaller Polarity Ratio comprising using relatively lower absolute value amplitude negative polarity.
 7. The method of claim 4, the step of using a relatively larger Polarity Ratio comprising using relatively more time at negative polarity.
 8. The method of claim 1, the step of using relatively larger Polarity Ratio comprising using relatively higher absolute value amplitude negative polarity.
 9. The method of claim 1, the step of driving the power supply comprising driving the power supply to generate a square wave.
 10. The method of claim 1, the step of driving the power supply comprising driving the power supply to generate a sine wave.
 11. The method of claim 1, the step of driving a power supply, comprising driving the power supply with a non-constant electrical potential, the Polarity Ratio supplied during deposition having been determined with reference to: a. a constitutive relation that relates the specified electrodeposited grain size to a corresponding proportion in the deposit of the active element; and b. a constitutive relation that relates the corresponding proportion in the deposit of the active element to a Polarity Ratio supplied during deposition.
 12. The method of claim 11, the step of driving a power supply comprising the steps of driving the power supply with a non-constant electrical potential, the Polarity Ratio supplied during deposition having been determined by: a. identifying a proportion of active element that corresponds to the specified grain size; and b. identifying a Polarity Ratio that corresponds to the identified proportion that corresponds to the specified electrodeposited grain size.
 13. The method of claim 12, the step of driving the power supply comprising: a. to achieve an electro-deposit composition having a relatively lower proportion of the relatively most active element than the proportion of that element in an index composition, using relatively greater Polarity Ratio than a Polarity Ratio that corresponds to that index composition based on the constitutive relation; and b. to achieve an electro-deposit composition having a relatively greater proportion of the relatively most active element than the proportion of that element in the index composition, by using relatively lower Polarity Ratio than a Polarity Ratio that corresponds to that index composition.
 14. The method of claim 1, the deposit comprising a coating upon a substrate.
 15. The method of claim 1, the deposit comprising an object free-standing from any electrode.
 16. The method of claim 14, the substrate comprising steel.
 17. The method of claim 14, the substrate comprising aluminum.
 18. The method of claim 14, the substrate comprising stainless steel.
 19. The method of claim 14, the substrate comprising brass.
 20. The method of claim 14, the substrate comprising metal.
 21. The method of claim 14, the substrate comprising plastic having an electro-active surface.
 22. A method for depositing an alloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one of which being most electro-active and at least one of which elements is a metal, an alloy deposit having a specified nanocrystalline average grain size, comprising the steps of: a. providing a liquid comprising dissolved species of the at least two elements at least one of which elements is the metal and at least one of which elements is the most electro-active; b. providing a first electrode and a second electrode in the liquid, coupled to a power supply configured to supply electrical potential having periods of positive polarity and negative polarity at different times; and c. driving the power supply to achieve the specified grain size deposit at the second electrode, with a non-constant electrical potential having periods of positive polarity and negative polarity at different times, the Polarity Ratio supplied during deposition having been determined with reference to: i. a first constitutive relation that relates electrodeposited average grain size of a deposit to a proportion of the most electro-active metal in the deposit; and ii. a second constitutive relation that relates the proportion of the most electro-active metal in a deposit to Polarity Ratio during deposition.
 23. The method of claim 22, further wherein the step of driving the power supply comprises the steps of: comparing the specified average grain size to at least one index grain size and, using the first constitutive relation, identifying a proportion of active metal in a deposit corresponding to the specified grain size; comparing the corresponding proportion of active metal to at least one index proportion of active metal and using the second constitutive relationship, identifying a Polarity Ratio corresponding to the proportion of most active metal that corresponds to the specified grain size; and driving the power supply to establish the identified Polarity Ratio, that corresponds to the proportion of most active metal that corresponds to the specified grain size.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein said first constitutive relation includes an explicit correspondence between the specified grain size and a proportion of most active metal.
 25. The method of claim 23, wherein said first constitutive relation includes an explicit correspondence between an index grain size that differs from the specified grain size, and a proportion of active metal, and also includes slope information that relates change in grain size to change in proportion of most active metal, which enables deriving a proportion of most active metal that corresponds to the specified grain size.
 26. The method of claim 23, wherein the second constitutive relation includes an explicit correspondence between the proportion of most active metal that corresponds to the specified grain size and Polarity Ratio.
 27. The method of claim 23, wherein said second constitutive relation includes an explicit correspondence between an index proportion of most active metal that differs from the proportion of most active metal that corresponds to the specified grain size, and also includes slope information that relates change in proportion of most active metal to change in Polarity Ratio, which enables deriving a Polarity Ratio that corresponds to the proportion of most active metal that corresponds to the specified grain size.
 28. The method of claim 22, further where at least one of the first and second constitutive relations comprises a continuous function.
 29. The method of claim 22, further where at least one of the first and second constitutive relations comprises a table.
 30. The method of claim 22, further where at least one of the first and second constitutive relations comprises a point and slope information.
 31. The method of claim 22, further where at least one of the first and second constitutive relations comprises a formula.
 32. The method of claim 22, the deposit comprising a coating upon a substrate.
 33. The method of claim 22, the deposit comprising an object free-standing from any electrode.
 34. The method of claim 22, the substrate comprising steel.
 35. The method of claim 22, the substrate comprising aluminum.
 36. The method of claim 22, the substrate comprising stainless steel.
 37. The method of claim 22, the substrate comprising brass.
 38. The method of claim 22, the substrate comprising metal.
 39. The method of claim 22, the substrate comprising plastic with an electro-conductive surface.
 40. A method for determining parameters for depositing at an electrode, an alloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one of which being most electro-active and at least one of which being a metal, the alloy deposit having a specified nanocrystalline average grain size, the deposition using a first electrode and a second electrode, at which the alloy will deposit, the electrodes residing in a liquid comprising dissolved species of at least two elements of the system, at least one of which elements is the metal and at least one of which is the most electro-active element, the electrodes being driven by a power supply configured to provide electrical potential having periods of positive polarity and negative polarity at different times, the method of determining parameters comprising the steps of: a. selecting a bath composition comprising dissolved species of the at least two elements of the system; b. determining a Polarity Ratio to supply to the electrodes during deposition by: i. determining a proportion of the most active element in the deposit composition that corresponds to the specified grain size, based on a constitutive relation that expresses average grain size as a function of proportion; and ii. determining a Polarity Ratio supplied during deposit that corresponds to the proportion that corresponds to the specified grain size, based on a constitutive relation that expresses proportion as a function of Polarity Ratio.
 41. The method of claim 40, the constitutive relation that expresses grain size as a function of proportion comprising at least one point and slope information.
 42. The method of claim 40, the constitutive relation that expresses grain size as a function of proportion comprising a table.
 43. The method of claim 40, the constitutive relation that expresses grain size as a function of proportion comprising a mathematical function.
 44. The method of claim 40, the constitutive relation that expresses grain size as a function of proportion comprising a continuous function.
 45. The method of claim 40, the constitutive relation that expresses proportion as a function of supplied Polarity Ratio comprising at least one point and slope information.
 46. The method of claim 40, the constitutive relation that expresses proportion as a function of supplied Polarity Ratio comprising a table.
 47. The method of claim 40, the constitutive relation that expresses proportion as a function of supplied Polarity Ratio comprising a mathematical function.
 48. The method of claim 40, the constitutive relation that expresses proportion as a function of supplied Polarity Ratio comprising a continuous function.
 49. A method for determining parameters for depositing at an electrode, an alloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one of which being most electro-active and at least one of which being metal, the deposit having a specified nanocrystalline grain size, the deposition using a first electrode and a second electrode at which the alloy will deposit, the electrodes residing in a liquid comprising dissolved species of at least two elements of the system, at least one of which is the metal and at least one of which is the most electro-active, the electrodes being driven by a power supply that is configured to provide electrical potential having periods of positive polarity and negative polarity at different times, the method of determining parameters comprising the steps of: a. selecting a bath composition comprising dissolved species of the at least two elements, b. determining a Polarity Ratio to supply to the electrodes during deposition, which corresponds to the specified grain size, based on a constitutive relation that expresses grain size as a function of supplied Polarity Ratio.
 50. The method of claim 49, the constitutive relation that expresses grain size as a function of Polarity Ratio comprising at least one point and slope information.
 51. The method of claim 49, the constitutive relation that expresses grain size as a function of Polarity Ratio comprising a table.
 52. The method of claim 49, the constitutive relation that expresses grain size as a function of Polarity Ratio comprising a mathematical function.
 53. The method of claim 49, the constitutive relation that expresses grain size as a function of Polarity Ratio comprising a continuous function.
 54. An article of manufacture of a metal alloy comprising at least two elements the article comprising: a. a first layer region having a nanocrystalline structure with a first average grain size; b. adjacent said first layer region, and in contact therewith, a second layer region having a nanocrystalline structure with a second average grain size, which second size differs from the first size; and further wherein the article exhibits failure modes that are dominated by phenomena other than the propagation of pre-existing cracks.
 55. The article of claim 54, the deposit comprising a coating upon a substrate.
 56. The article of claim 55, the coating comprising a coating that protects against corrosion.
 57. The article of claim 55, the coating comprising a coating that protects against abrasion.
 58. The article of claim 55, the coating comprising a decorative coating.
 59. The article of claim 55, the coating comprising a coating that functions as does a hard chrome coating.
 60. The article of claim 54, the deposit comprising an object free-standing from any electrode.
 61. The article of claim 55, the substrate comprising steel.
 62. The article of claim 55, the substrate comprising aluminum.
 63. The article of claim 55, the substrate comprising stainless steel.
 64. The article of claim 55, the substrate comprising brass.
 65. The article of claim 55, the substrate comprising metal.
 66. The article of claim 55, the substrate comprising plastic with an electro-conductive surface.
 67. The article of claim 55, further wherein, one of the layer regions comprises a region having a nanocrystalline structure with a graded variation in average grain size, such that the graded variation region has a first average grain size at a first location and spaced therefrom, at a second location, the graded variation region has a second, different average grain size, with varying average grain sizes between the first and second locations.
 68. An article of manufacture of a metal alloy comprising at least two elements the article comprising: a deposit having a nanocrystalline structure with a variation in average grain size, such that the deposit has: a first average grain size at a first location; and spaced therefrom, at a second location, a second, different average grain size, with varied average grain sizes between the first and second locations; and further wherein the article exhibits failure modes that are dominated by phenomena other than crack propagation from pre-existing cracks.
 69. The article of claim 68, the deposit comprising a coating upon a substrate.
 70. The article of claim 69, the coating comprising a coating that protects against corrosion.
 71. The article of claim 69, the coating comprising a coating that protects against abrasion.
 72. The article of claim 69, the coating comprising a decorative coating.
 73. The article of claim 69, the coating comprising a coating that functions as does a hard chrome coating.
 74. The article of claim 69, the deposit comprising an object free-standing from any electrode.
 75. The article of claim 69, the substrate comprising steel.
 76. The article of claim 69, the substrate comprising aluminum.
 77. The article of claim 69, the substrate comprising stainless steel.
 78. The article of claim 69, the substrate comprising brass.
 79. The article of claim 69, the substrate comprising metal.
 80. The article of claim 69, the substrate comprising plastic with an electro-conductive surface.
 81. An article of manufacture of a metal alloy comprising at least two elements the article comprising: a. a first layer region having a nanocrystalline structure with a first average grain size; b. adjacent said first layer region, and in contact therewith, a second layer region having a nanocrystalline structure with a second average grain size, which second size differs from the first size; and further wherein the article exhibits failure modes that are dominated by phenomena other than crack initiation and propagation from pre-existing voids.
 82. The article of claim 81, further wherein, one of the layer regions comprises a region having a nanocrystalline structure with a variation in average grain size, such that the variation region has a first average grain size at a first location and spaced therefrom, at a second location, the variation region has a second, different average grain size, with varying average grain sizes between the first and second locations.
 83. An article of manufacture of a metal alloy comprising at least two elements, the article comprising: a region having a nanocrystalline structure with a variation in average grain size, such that the variation region has a first average grain size at a first location and spaced therefrom, at a second location, the variation region has a second, different average grain size, with varying average grain sizes between the first and second locations; further wherein the article exhibits failure modes that are dominated by phenomena other than crack initiation and propagation from pre-existing voids.
 84. A method for depositing an alloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one of which being most electro-active and at least one of which being a metal, an alloy deposit having a first layer region having a nanocrystalline structure with a first average grain size adjacent said first layer region, and in contact therewith, a second layer region having a nanocrystalline structure with a second average grain size, which second size differs from the first size, comprising the steps of: a. providing a liquid comprising dissolved species of at least two elements of the system, at least one of which elements is the metal and at least one of which elements is the most electro-active; b. providing a first electrode and a second electrode in the liquid, coupled to a power supply configured to supply electrical potential having periods of positive polarity and negative polarity at different times; c. driving the power supply for a first period of time to achieve the first specified grain size deposit at the second electrode, with a non-constant electrical potential having positive polarity and negative polarity at different times, which times and polarities characterize a first Polarity Ratio; and; d. driving the power supply for a second period of time to achieve the second specified grain size deposit at the second electrode, with a non-constant electrical potential having positive polarity and negative polarity at different times, which times and polarities characterize a second Polarity Ratio that differs from the first Polarity Ratio.
 85. The method of depositing of claim 84, further wherein, one of the layer regions comprises a region having a nanocrystalline structure with a variation in average grain size, such that the variation region has a first average grain size at a first location and spaced therefrom, at a second location, the variation region has a second, different average grain size, with varying average grain sizes between the first and second locations, the step of driving the power supply for a second period of time further comprises driving the power supply with a non-constant electrical potential having positive polarity and negative polarity at different times, which times and polarities characterize a range of non-constant Polarity Ratios that correspond to a range of different average grain sizes.
 86. A method for depositing an alloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one of which being most electro-active and at least one of which being a metal, comprising the steps of: a. providing an electroplating liquid comprising dissolved elements of the system; b. providing a first electrode and a second electrode in the liquid; c. driving the power supply for a first period of time with a non-constant electrical potential that characterizes a first Polarity Ratio; and; d. driving the power supply for a second period of time with a non-constant electrical potential that characterize a second Polarity Ratio that differs from the first Polarity Ratio.
 87. A method for depositing an alloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one of which being most electro-active and at least one of which being a metal, an alloy deposit having a variation in average grain size, such that the variation region has a first average grain size at a first location and spaced therefrom, at a second location, the variation region has a second, different average grain size, with varying average grain sizes between the first and second locations comprising the steps of: a. providing a liquid comprising dissolved species of at least two elements of the system, at least one of which elements is the metal and at least one of which elements is the most electro-active; b. providing a first electrode and a second electrode in the liquid, coupled to a power supply configured to supply electrical potential having periods of positive polarity and negative polarity at different times; and c. driving the power supply for a period of time with a non-constant electrical potential having positive polarity and negative polarity at different times, which times and polarities characterize a range of non-constant Polarity Ratios, which correspond to a range of different average grain sizes.
 88. A method for depositing an alloy of a system comprising at least two elements, one of which being most electro-active and at least one of which being a metal, comprising the steps of: a. providing an electro-plating liquid comprising elements of the system; b. providing a first electrode and a second electrode in the liquid, coupled to a power supply; and c. driving the power supply for a period of time characterized by a range of non-constant Polarity Ratios, which correspond to a range of different average grain sizes. 